Globalization; Challenges to the Equalization of Opportunities to the Disability Movement

INTRODUCTION				proportionate increase in the global number of people
Human communities worldwide have tended to move				with disabilities (Harwood et al, 2004). It is forecast that
gradually to develop closer associations over a long				over the period, the Indian Sub-continent could have an
time. However, lately the speed of the movement				increase in population of approximately 120%, China,
appears to have considerably accelerated. For				70%, the Sub-Saharan Africa, 257% and Burkina Faso,
instance, the invention of the jet planes, the computer				Congo, Liberia, Niger, Somalia, Palestine, Uganda, could
chip, and availability of electronic mail (email), cheap				have a combined increase of over 400%. (Harwood
telecommunication services, huge but fast sea vessels,				et al, 2004).
instantaneous financial transactions across national				Disability in the Global Context
borders, all seem to contribute to the movement to				There is growing evidence that disability as an issue
make the globe even more mutually dependent than				seems to have shifted significantly over the past few
ever. The production and provision of branded goods				years from the periphery to the centre of the
and services by transnational corporations (TNCs)				international human rights agenda (Mett, 2004;1), and
such as Coca- Cola, Colgate-Palmolive, Dulux Paints,				also of numerous literature that disability policy agenda
Barclays Bank Gestetner, McDonalds, Kentucky Fried				has risen to be a global policy issue (Barton &
Chickens, Nandos, Dunlop, and Ford to name a few,				Oliver, 1987; Priestley 2001); and also that it has
marketed throughout the world, all seem to contribute				become a challenge to policy planners who map out
to make the globe a more symbiotic place. The				development oriented policies and strategies for social
exchange of information and communication				and economic programmes for disabled people. The
technological knowledge along with products and				processes of globalization seem to be shifting not only
finances, ideas and cultures now seem to circulate				the populations of person with disabilities but also their
more liberally. And this seems to be the current and				experience of disability. People with disabilities globally
future trend.				seem to be empowering themselves to assert
Globalization undoubtedly, appears to be one of the				greater involvement and equality in global challenges
most prominent aspects of the present century.				affecting them. Such claims are not only about control
Consequently, laws, economies, and social				over individuals' lives, but also about greater influence
engagements seem to now form at the global level.				over the societies and economies within which they
Professionals, politicians, intellectuals and journalists				live (Swain, Finklestein, French and Oliver, 1993). Thus,
seem to treat the global trends as both predictable				the observance of the International Day of Disabled
and generally welcome. And for some of the world's				Persons ( IDDP) declared in 1982 and commemorated
population, globalization has increasingly become a				on 3 December tends to focus on the active
catchphrase or buzzword and may mean getting rid				involvement of disabled persons in the planning of
of the old ways of life and hostile livelihoods and				strategies and policies that affect their lives. The annual
cultures (Guinness, 2003).				observance of the day, with the slogan "Nothing about
However, signs of globalization of the past few				Us without Us," seems to offer an opportunity to
decades are recent compared to at least four other				foster changes in attitudes towards disabled persons
major phases that appear to have shrunk the world				to eliminate barriers to their full participation in all
throughout history. Historically, globalization can be				aspects of life (Stone, 1997; Rowland, 2001; Swain, et al
viewed as having been signaled by;				1993).
- The cross-oceanic European voyages of discovery				The declaration of 1981 as the International Year of the
from 1492 to about 1565 (Guinness, 2003).				Disabled Person (IYDP) further elevated disability onto
- The forced migration and translocation of Africans				the international human rights agenda (Priestley 2001).
and Indians into slavery and indentured labour to the				A major outcome of the International Year of the
plantations in the West Indies.				Disabled Persons was the formation of the World
- The massive human migration of the 1930 from				Programmes of Action concerning Disabled Persons,
Europe and Asia to the Americas (Ingstad and Whyte,				which the United Nations General Assembly adopted
1995).				at its 37th regular session in 1982, by its resolution 37
- The economic depression of the 1930s (Stiglitz, 2002).				52 (United Nations, 1982). Subsequent International
While each of these earlier episodes of globalization				Years were supposed to bring focus to a particular
saw rapid growth in world economy, Guinness (2003),				area and create new links and opportunities (Swain, et
contends that they tended to exert a heavy human toll				al. 1993).
especially on the less economically developed nation				In Southern African countries like Malawi, Zimbabwe,
states. In addressing the challenges and opportunities				Botswana, South Africa, the motto has been "Disability
of globalization, there currently appears to be				is Not Inability" (Salmonsson, 2006). This slogan and
increasing global concerns with both the positive and				motto tend to rely on the principle of participation, and
negative impacts of this phenomenon on the local,				has been used by disabled people's organizations
national and international levels of developments in all				throughout the years as part of the global disability
spheres be they social, political, or economic (Priestley,				movement, to achieve the full participation and
2001). Of concern in this essay, is the area of disability				equalization of opportunities for, by and with disabled
and how globalization has impacted on the challenges				persons (Watermeyer, Swartz, Lorenzo, Schneider
or opportunities for disabled people.				& Priestley (2006). Therefore, to disentangle the
Although Lauder, Brown, Dillabough and Halsey (2006)				lived experience of disability from the social context of
note that most researchers on globalization have				disabling societies at the local, national, and global levels
tended to focus on particular aspects, globalization,				appears impossible.
however, appears to be multi-dimensional (Waters,				Thus, the recognition of disabled people, to improve
1995; Cheng, 2004). Hence, perceptions on the				their lives has been demonstrated by the United
phenomenon tend to be varied and accordingly, the				Nations, as is implied in the active involvement of
definitions of the term so far postulated, appear				disabled persons in the on-going elaboration of the
"fuzzy". And indeed Lauder et al (2006) observe that				Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
there is no agreed definition as yet because it appears				(United Nations, 2006), and in the Standard Rules for
globalization represents a process that is never ending				the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with
and cannot be thought of as either cyclic or				Disabilities (UNESCO, 1993). These conventions seem
evolutionarily progressing from simple to complex.				to have proved to be excellent examples of how the
Indeed, with a new crop of writers such as Brown and				principle of full participation can be put into practice and
Lauder (1996), Schirato and Webb (2003), Stiglitz				how disabled people can contribute to the
(2002), Burbules and Torres (2000) and Bottery (2004),				development of truly inclusive communities to shape a
to mention a few, it appears a plethora of concepts				better future for all.
which include, technological globalization, economic				The United Nations' establishment of the World
globalization and learning globalization, environmental				Programmes of Action, led to the UNESCO
globalization, demographic globalization, American				Framework for Action of the World Conferences on
globalization, (Nye, 2002) cultural globalization political				Education for All held in 1990 in Jomtien (Thailand), The
globalization (Bottery, 2004) emerged, advancing new				Salamanca Statement and Framework for Special
insights into the meaning of globalization. The list of the				Needs Education (UNESCO, 1994) and the Dakar
kinds of "globalization" appears endless and is on-going,				Framework on Education for All (UNESCO, 2002).
as debate on the phenomenon continues to forge				To demonstrate the importance of placing disability on
ahead. But according to Bottery (2004), some kinds of				the global level, more than one hundred and fifty-five
globalization are more pressing in their immediate				countries from all over the world were represented by
effects than others. This paper examines and defines				leaders of government, international agencies,
globalization from a general perspective and also				non-governmental organizations and professional
explores how the globalization process has "pressed"				bodies who committed themselves to recognizing the
on the creation of challenges and, or opportunities for				education of all disabled individuals, attended the
disabled people worldwide. Other terms such as				Jomtiem conference (Ndawi, 1997). The Dakar World
"disability" that are embedded within the globalization				Education Forum conference, in April 2000 attracted
context will be defined as the discussion unfolds.				more than 1,100 participants from one hundred and
What is globalization?				sixty four countries (UNESCO, 2002). Participants
While the terms "globe" and "global" appear to have				ranged from teachers to prime ministers, academics to
been in English usage for over four centuries, the noun				policymakers, non-governmental bodies to the heads
form "globalization" did not seem to be in common use				of major international organizations. They adopted the
until about 1960 (Guinness, 2003). According to				Dakar Framework for Action, Education for All
Weekley (1967), in "An Etymological Dictionary of				(UNESCO, 2002). The Dakar Conference was
Modern English", the term "globalization" was first				complemented by earlier conferences which all
recognized in 1959 but remained dormant until the				addressed issues related to the challenges and
mid-1980s when its usage increased dramatically in				empowerment of disabled people. These were
academic language (Guinness, 2003). To some				namely, the Sub-Saharan Conference on Education for
authors, the term seems to refer to the emergence of				All held in South Africa in 1999; Asia and Pacific
transnational organizations whose decisions tend to				Conference on Education For All held in Bangkok in
shape and constrain the policy options any particular				2000; The Arab Regional Conference on Education for
nation state may wish to take (Burbules and Torres,				All held in Cairo; The Third Inter-Ministerial Review
2000). To yet others, globalization may mean the				Meeting on the E-9 Countries held in Recife, Brazil;
"transition from national ‘walled' and regional				Conference on Education for All in Europe and North
economies towards global ‘free' trade and				America held in Warsaw, Poland in 2000 and The
markets" (Lauder,et. al. 2006; 30). It may also, to yet				Regional Education for All Conference in the Americas
others mean the impact of global economic processes				held in Santa Domingo, Dominican Republic in 2000
that include production of standardized goods and				(UNESCO, 2002).
services, consumption patterns and financial				GLOBAL DISABILITY CHALLENGES TO THE
interdependence and "footloose" capital flows (Brown				EQUALIZATION OF OPPORTUNITIES
and Lauder, 1996). To still others, globalization means				It appears disabled people are most challenged in four
the appearance of new global cultural forms, media,				fronts, namely, by poverty, wars, access to education
information and communication technologies, which				and work.
seem unrestricted by national borders (Held, 1991). It is				Poverty
perhaps, to political skeptics, where globalization can be				With the disability policy agenda having reached the
viewed as a mental construct utilized by the state				highest levels of global recognition, globalization seems
polity to garner support for or to squash opposition to				to have constructed a universe that offers endless
reform resulting from mightier forces such as global				opportunities and new life patterns to all; for instance
trade competitions instigated by the World Trade				easy access to education, information and technology,
Organization (WTO): or responses to structural				health and social amenities and etcetera. But, according
adjustment programme (SAPs) demands of the				to Ghai (2001), the paradox is that on the one hand,
Bretton Woods Institutes-the World Bank and				globalization places emphasis on economic power to
International Monetary Fund) (Brown, 1999): or to				improve the livelihood of mankind but on the other,
obligations to fulfill agreements of intergovernmental				methodically marginalizes certain groups of people, in
organizations or regional economic blocs (Held, 1991)				particular disabled people by its use of modern
such as the European Union, The North American Free				technology and its removal of these people from
Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Economic Commission of				participating to contributing to the gross national
West African States (ECOWAS), the Southern				product of individual nation states. And in this way,
African Development Committee (SADC), or the				globalization seems to have created challenges to the
Organization for Economic Co-operation and				equalization of opportunities to disabled people. More
Development (OECD), that leave the nation state with				so, the apparent disparity in economic, social and
no option but to play along an imposed set of global				technological developments between the different
rules (Burbules and Torres, 2000).Guinness (2003; 3)				nation states has led globalization to seem to have a
posits that the nature of certain jobs tends to influence				different meaning for disabled people and to challenge
views when thinking of globalization. For instance, to				them differently in the different communities (Ghai,
Kofi Annan (the former United Nations Secretary				2001); with some communities wealthier than others.
General) globalization may mean "world inclusivity"; to				Poverty seems to be afflicting the half a billion disabled
depots and other like minded dictators, globalization				people or so in the world today, According to Ghai
may be perceived as meaning a threat to the national				(2001), more disabled people seem to be suffering on
sovereignty of their nation states. While to Bill Gates of				every continent, perhaps more than ever before. Most
Microsoft Corporation, globalization may mean				of them are on the lowest end of the socio-economic
connecting the world virtually in cyberspace, by a				scale (Beresford, 1996; Frieden, 2002).
world wide web. Thus, myriad views on globalization				Consequently, disabled people have tended to be
surfaced as the concept ignited across a wide range				more vulnerable to, their incapability to combat poverty,
of intellectual interests with some views on the one				exclusion, stigma and lack of access to basic
end vilifying the concept and on the other, praising it				education and services. Disabled people seem to
(Stiglitz, 2002).				experience poverty more intensely but have fewer
The use and popularity of the term "globalization" may				opportunities to escape from it. A former President of
be partly due to its vagueness and ability to assume				the World Bank observed this and asserted that
different dimensions depending on the user and				"unless disabled people are brought into the
context. Held and Koenig–Archibugi (2003) and				development mainstream, it will be impossible to cut
Schirato and Webb (2000; 1) concur and describe				poverty by half by 2015..." (Richler, 2005, 37). Hence,
globalization as a word that is often used to designate				according to Beresford 1996), combating global
the global power relations, practices and technologies				poverty is a key issue in the disability movement.
that characterize, and help to bring into being the				Wars and political upheavals
contemporary world. Robertson (1992) defines				Another aspect that appears to challenge the
globalization as a concept that refers both to the				equalization of opportunities for disabled people is war
compression of the world and the intensification of				and its associated political upheavals (Priestley, 2001).
consciousness of the world as a whole. Waters (2001),				As Driedger (1987) observed, war and political
in coining his definition argues that the most appropriate				upheaval have had adverse effects on disabled
way of defining globalization would be to predict what				peoples' lives and their rights seem grossly violated in
a totally globalized world would appear to be like in the				war times anywhere in the world; effectively excluding
future. Waters (2001) therefore, visualizes globalization				them from participating in the social and capital
as being characterized by a single global society with a				capacity building of affected nations. Priestley (1987)
single culture, where there are no territorial boundaries				also notes that wars have resulted in millions of
which, in that status quo, seem to exist in principle for				disabled refugees and displaced persons in and around
organizing social and cultural life and where there could				war tone zones. Supposedly, in Central Africa, the
be high regard for tolerance, diversity and individual				Middle East, and Afghanistan and in Central America,
choice. Waters (2001) also views the flow of trade as				war is perceived as a major cause of disability.
well as migration of people and ideas across national				Anti-personnel landmines have also massively
and political boundaries, as being interlinked and thus,				contributed to causing disability of various sorts and
forcing previously homogenous cultures to rationalize				thus the achievement of peace has become a global
each other. Thus, globalization can be perceived s a				disability issue. The European Union's commitment to
process that simultaneously differentiates and				eradicate landmines on a global scale seems illustrative,
homogenizes and consequently "pluralizing the world				but the role of the United Nations in this matter
by recognizing the value of cultural niches" (Guinness,				appears "invisible".
2003; 2). From this vantage therefore, Waters (2001)				In a speech to the European Union parliament, the
defines globalization as;				European Union's Commissioner for External Affairs
A process in which the constraints of geography on				noted that one hundred and forty four countries have
economic, social and cultural arrangements recede, in				so far ratified the Mines Ban Treaty (Waldner, 2005).
which people become increasingly aware that they				Numerous other summits have been held to discuss
are receding and in which people act accordingly.				the reduction of the number of people either killed or
To an extent, Waters' definition of globalization				maimed by landmines. Waldner conceded that the
seems to concur with Stiglitz's (2002; 9) description				annual number of landmine victims has dropped from
when he says globalization is fundamentally,the closer				26 000 to below 15 000 (Waldner, 2005). The Disabled
integration of countries and peoples of the world which				Peoples International (DPI, 1998) took issue with this
has been brought about the enormous reduction of				matter at their World Assembly in 1998 in Mexico City
costs of transportation and communication, and the				and a subsequent visit by the DPI World Council to
breaking down of artificial barriers to the flow of				Hiroshima, the site of the Second World War atomic
goods, services, capital , knowledge and …people				bomb, resulted in the International Peace Declaration by
across borders.				the global disability organizations.
To Waters (2001), globalization, not only is it a major				However, war and political upheaval have ironically
historical process that impacts heavily on culture but is				also, had a positive impact on the lives of disabled
also, a central focus of attention of modern culture and				people. In countries where there were revolutions such
economy. He contends that globalization has a				as Vietnam, Kenya, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Namibia
tendency to take issues from the centre levels to the				and Nicaragua, Ingstad and Whyte (1995) and Montero
periphery. For instance, through the speedy and				(1998), observe that disabled people, in the process
continuous transmission of the "so-called" western				were venerated and "practically considered national
culture to peripheral communities, And vice versa,				heroes and were given all the opportunities possible to
globalization has also tended to bring issues, from				develop and strengthen their organizations", and to
peripheral levels to the centre. For instance, the area of				access funding, education, jobs, and other services.
disability to be discussed below, has been taken				War veterans seemed to experience disability in
seriously onto the agendas of supra national institutions				positively very different ways as compared to those
such as the United Nations, International Labour				disabled before the revolutions.
Organization The Bretton Woods Institutes and the				Work
World Health Organization or to organizations that				For many disabled people, the demand for access to
have merged with existing ones to function across				work may be perceived as a major signifier of
borders. In this sense, it appears to me that the United				independent adulthood and a crucial component to the
Nations' programme of work on globalization is in				struggle for equality. Yet, as Priestley (2001; 8) asserts,
response to the changing international context to				disabled people globally "continue to be
promote effective development oriented disability				disproportionately unemployed, underemployed and
policies and strategies. Accordingly, the aim of the				underpaid…" This assertion is reflected in, for
United Nations through various arms such as the				instance in the focus of the British Government's
World Bank, World Health Organization, World Trade				proposal to tackle oppression of disabled people on
Organization, to name a few, is to ensure that disability				the work place (Barton and Oliver, 1997). The British
policies and strategies and globalization function				Government cut back on the Access to Work
together to improve the health, welfare and rights of				scheme and the disabled people's organizations fought
the poor as well as the disadvantaged population				that decision asserting that the right to a job is a
(World Health Organization, 2005).				fundamental human right (Barton and Oliver, 1997).
Disability as a global concept: Historical background and				Such challenges for access to jobs by disabled people
definition of disability.				appear to have become common in many countries.
Disability is one socio-cultural issue that appeared to				Hence in 1983, the International Labour Organization
have remained in the periphery but has currently				adopted a Convention Concerning Vocational,
been brought to the centre of most global agenda. It is				Rehabilitation and Employment (Disabled Persons) (ILO,
a term sometimes confused with two other terms				1983) to ensure equality of opportunities and
"impairment and handicap. The terms "disability"				equalization of treatment of disabled people at work
"impairment" and "handicap" were often used				and social integration. However, despite much effort at
interchangeably but in an unclear and confusing way,				the global level to include disabled people in the work
and may have tended to give poor guidance to				world, at the local level, some would continue to be
policy-makers, for political action as well as for practical				excluded by their impairments because some tend not
use. The terms used to be perceived from a medical				to be capable of producing goods or services to
and diagnostic angle (Shakespear, 2006).				contribute to the social and economic capital base. To
What is a Disability?				this, Barton and Oliver (1997;35) comment that this is so
Disability is a phenomenon that exists in all societies				"because in any society........certain products are of value
and tends to affect predictable proportions of each				and others are not regardless of the efforts that go
population (Metts, 2004). Although there are a number				into their production."
of definitions in use to describe disability, disability largely				Education
depends upon context. And apparently, universally, it				Education occupies a unique position in modern society
appeared there was no agreed definition of disability				today because it tends to benefit both society and the
until 1980. Historically, disability was on the one hand,				individual as it is considered a public good
viewed as a medical condition, with a medical problem				(Psacharopoulos and Woodhall (1985). The advances
located within the individual. Hence, some definitions				in knowledge and scientific understanding seem to
tended to reflect this understanding that disability was				strengthen the optimism that society holds of
an individual pathology; i.e. a condition grounded in the				education (Lauder et al.2006). Education offers
physiological, biological and intellectual impairment of an				optimism to influence the well being of people and
individual (Shakespear, 2006). The medical definitions				nation state because according to Lauder et al. (2006),
gave rise to the idea that people were "objects" to be				education is perceived by almost all people as the
"treated", "changed" or "improved" and made more				means by which to improve individuals' lives and an
"normal" (Wolfensburger, 1972). The medical definitions				understanding of their place in the world.
tended to perceive the disabled person as having to				.Typically, therefore, as global market trends and
"fit in" rather than about how society itself should				technologies continue to develop in new pathways,
transform. They did not seem to adequately explain				education tends to become commdified and free
the relationship between societal conditions or				access to education seems to also become even
expectations and the unique circumstances of an				more important for everyone. However, disabled
individual.				people seem to continue to be challenged in their quest
Disability can be viewed as a highly varied and				to access educational opportunities available. In their
complex condition with a range of implications for				zeal to acquire knowledge and skills needed in the
social identity and behaviour (Ingstad and Whyte, 1995).				evolving world of work, Peters (1996) notes that the
Therefore, a growing realization to articulate a definition				inequitable access to educational benefits results in the
of disability, which was in conformity with human rights				inaccessibility to work; thereby propelling further the
values, principles and practices was needed. Whilst				creation of an impoverished community. In some
some disabled people may have medical conditions				societies, for instance the Pakistani, disabled girl children
which impede them and which may or may not require				education is not considered important (Shah, 1990). And
medical treatment, current knowledge, technology and				from a personal viewpoint, it appears this perspective
collective resources are already such that their				is in existence among some religious communities in
physical or mental impairments need not prevent them				Southern Africa. Such barriers to access to education
from participating in community lives. According to				challenge many disabled people and compel them to
Rieser and Mason (1990), it is society's unwillingness to				be dependant upon their families in many countries
employ these means to altering itself that causes				(Priestley, 2001). In addressing these matters, the United
disabilities. But, it seems at the centre of society, lies				Nations, through the various protocols such as the
the values that respect the variation in human cultures				Salamanca Statement, the Dakar Framework, the
and the appreciation that people are different on				Jomtien Conference and others, seeks to
several considerations such as gender, race, class,				Ensure equal educational opportunities at all levels for
sexuality, and disability (Lauder, et al, 2006; 29).				children, youth and adults with disabilities in integrated
On the other hand , while the medical model seemed				settings, taking into full account of individual differences
to be in vogue, it was challenged by disability activists				and situations (World Summit on Social Development,
who reconstructed disability as a social phenomenon				Commitment 6, item f, 1995). Consequently, at the
(Shakespear, 2006). The social model of disability				national level, governments the world over have had to
seems to draw a clear distinction between				formulate legislation and initiatives consistent with the
impairments, handicaps and disability, because society				vision of the United Nations.
tends to ignore the imperfections and deficiencies of				However, in most African States, these policies and
the surrounding environment which in turn tends to				legislation were absent and a concerted effort was
disable people by its failure to recognize and				made to put them in place through the African
accommodate differences. And also, through the				Unions' Continental Plan of Action which is aimed at
attitudinal and institutional barriers it erects towards				implementing priority activities on disability during the
people. Disability thus seems to arise from a complex				African Decade of Persons with Disabilities
interaction between health conditions, the social				(1999-2009) (Secretariat of the African Decade, 2004).
context in which they exist and the individual. To some,				In order to create an equitable society in Africa, the
disability is a relative term with certain impairments				Secretariat of the African Decade facilitates the
becoming more or less disabling in different contexts.				development of highly progressive policies and
In 1980, the World Health Organization (WHO) classified				legislation, which if properly used, can over periods
the terms disabilities, impairments and handicaps, and				drastically reform the social disadvantages
suggested a universal, more precise and at the same				experienced by all disabled persons. For example,
time realistic approach to their definitions and use				Ghana adopted the Free, Compulsory and Universal
Metts, 2004;3). The World Health Organization made a				Basic Education (FCUBE) (Sawyerr 1997), initiative in
clear distinction between "impairment", "disability" and				line with this United Nations vision. In Zimbabwe, the
"handicap". However, there were concerns that the				Basic Education Assistance Module (BEAM) was
definition of the terms "impairment" and "handicap" may				initiated cognizant of the same vision. The USA initially
still be considered too medical and too centred on the				passed Public Law 92-142 (PL 92-142) Education for
individual, and may not adequately clarify the interaction				All Handicapped Persons Act (Gearheart, Weishahn
between societal conditions or expectations and the				and Gearheart, 1982). Then in 1975, the American
abilities of the individual. Hence, the need to separate				Congress enacted the Individuals with Disabilities
and clarify the meanings of these terms. By				Education Act (IDEA) from which initiatives like the "No
description, the term "disability" tends to summarize				Child Left Behind" (NCLB) (Astoria 2007), were born. In
different functional limitations occurring in individuals				the United Kingdom, the "Every Child Matters" Green
anywhere in the world. People may be disabled by				Paper (The Stationery Office, 2003) is similar in
physical, intellectual or sensory limitations, medical				principle to the American IDEA.
conditions or mental illness. Such limitations or illnesses				Several nations have put in place similar protocols to
may be permanent or temporary (United Nations,				deal with equalization of educational opportunities to all
1993).				people in their systems. To emphasize this, the United
The term "handicap" tends to mean the loss or				Nations Copenhagen Declaration on Social
limitation of opportunities to participate in the life of the				Development included specific pledges on equal
community on an equal level with others (Ingstad and				educational opportunities for disabled children and
Whyte, 1995). It may describe the encounter between				young people. (World Summit on Social Development
the disabled person and their environment. The term				1995).
emphasizes the focus on the shortcomings in socially				A PERSONAL THOUGHT
organized environmental activities; such as, access to				It may be naïve to conclude that globalization alone
information, communication technology, health services				has caused the challenges experienced by disabled
and to education, which prevent disabled persons from				people, or that nothing can be done to improve the
participating on equal terms with everybody else				equalization of opportunities in their situations. In real
(Ingstad and Whyte, 1995). Although the term continues				essence, it appears; the less developed countries have
in use, its technical use was, according to Stone (1997)				not been able to integrate disabled people within the
discarded by the United Nations in 1993. During the				global economic and social development as quickly as
1970s there had been a strong rejection among				others, partly because of their chosen policies and
representatives of organizations of disabled persons				partly because of factors outside their control such as
and professionals in the field of disability of the term at				imposed economic structural adjustment programmes
the time (Ingstad and Whyte, 1995). The term				(SAPs), debt burden caused by the Bretton Wood
"impairment" can be defined to mean "any loss or				Institutes and wars and conflict. In my opinion however,
abnormality of psychological, physiological or				it appears no nation state, least of all the poorest, can
anatomical structure or function" (WHO, 1980). The				afford to remain isolated from the global social and
distinction and clarification of the terms "disability" and				economic capacity building initiatives. Every country
"impairment" and "handicap" seemed to perch the				should seek to provide for the needs and access to
views on the medical and social models of disability in				the basic services of all its citizens in order to reduce
opposition to each other. This seemed to pave the				challenging situations and to increase equal opportunity
way for a new and seemingly acceptable disability				initiatives to ameliorate suffering among its disabled
model framed along Human Rights. In the light of				people populations. The self organization of disabled
modern society values, it was a model, appealing to				people into groups seems to raise their values and
both advocates of equal rights and the United Nations				voices, and is also a fundamental right that disabled
(Shakespear, 2006).				people should continue to exercise. Through
In 1975 the United Nations General Assembly made				globalization principles, the international community
its first Declaration on the Rights of the Disabled				should endeavour to invest in disabled people. On
Persons (Priestley, 2001). After the declaration, the				economic grounds, investment in disabled people is
United Nations proclaimed 1981 as the International				justified as long as the consequential capital investment
Year of the Disabled Persons and commenced on the				does not exceed the cost of benefits derived. .
development of World Programmes of Action that led				CONCLUSION
to the adoption of the Standard Rules on the				In conclusion, this essay discussed the concepts of
Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with				globalization and disability. Descriptions and definitions of
Disabilities in 1994 (United Nations, 1993). As a result				both terms were made. Within the globalization
of the experiences gained during the 1983-1992				concept, disability was discussed. Then a historical
Decade of Disabled Persons, in the implementation of				framework of disability in the global context was
the World Programmes of Action and of the general				suggested. It seems definitions of disability vary across
discussions that took place, there was a deepening of				communities. The challenges that face disabled people
knowledge and understanding concerning disability				in their zeal to achieve full independence in the control
issues and the terminology used. At the same time				of their lives and to contribute to the social and
disability was more clearly defined (Priestley, 2001;				economic capacity were also highlighted. However, as
Ingstad and Whyte, 1995). (Although multi-culturally,				globalization progresses; living conditions seem to
there still seemed to be problems in defining disability in				improve significantly in virtually all countries. But that the
a global context-for instance, how could imperfections				economic disparities between developed and less
of the body and of the mind be understood in different				developed countries seem to have grown wider and
societies? Or how could a person's culturally defined				wars and political upheaval as well the incapability of
identity be affected by one's disability? (Ingstad and				escaping from poverty are matters of concern that
Whyte, 1995). Hence, according to Haddad (2001),				seem to affect the majority of disabled people. The
President of the Canadian Medical Association, the				number of the world's citizens who are in poverty
term, disability, tends to have various meanings				seems disturbing- let along among the population of the
depending on the context in which the term is used.				disabled people.
However, for the purpose of this essay the World				References
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WorkAbility

Globalization; Challenges to the Equalization of Opportunities to the Disability Movement